electrometer

The buffers can be a pair of JFET op amps or two electrometers with unity-gain outputs.

Electrometers can be very useful where electrode areas are very small and solution conductivities are very low.

In addition to their versatility, electrometers are easy to operate, reliable, and rugged.

The instruments used to make these high impedance measurements include electrometers, picoammeters, and source-measure units (SMUs).

Electrometers perform this function with the touch of a button or upon command from the computer.

The charge measurement range of most electrometers can be extended using external feedback.

Electrometers can measure high resistance either by sourcing current and measuring voltage or by sourcing voltage and measuring current.

Some electrometers and picoammeters have voltage sources built into the instrument and automatically can calculate the unknown resistance.

Electrometers, picoammeters, and SMUs may be damaged if excessive voltage is applied to the input.

Some electrometers and picoammeters, however, have a built-in voltage source and are capable of measuring the resistance directly.

The voltmeter will read the difference between the two electrometers' buffer outputs, which is equal to the voltage across R2.

Electrometers, SMUs, and picoammeters can be used with relatively large values of source capacitance.

Electrometers and some SMUs as voltmeters are characterized by high input resistance.

Most electrometers include a means to correct for zero drift.