We also review the recent advances on the molecular mechanisms that regulate the autophagy machinery at various levels, from transcriptional activation to post-translational protein modification.

Glycosylation is the most important post-translational modification of protein. The covalently bound oligosaccharides play a significant role in the structure and function of protein.

Protein tyrosine nitration is an important selective post-translational modification, and the product, 3-nitrotyrosine, has been utilized as a biomarker of tissue and cell injury.