In most respects, smoke exposure worsened the host response to influenza. This animal model may be useful in studying how smoke worsens respiratory viral infections.

Sepsis is defined as a life-threatening organ dysfunction caused by a dysregulated host response to infection and is usually associated with coagulation dysfunction.

Macrophage is a central cell type in directing host inflammatory and immune processes; thus, its response to biomaterials is extremely important in understanding material-mediated host response.